Список вопросов базы знаний

?) Its definition depends on the contrasts and comparisons to be made.

?) In different contexts the word modern means subtly different things.

?) For the purposes of the following discussion, the “modern family” may be taken generally to refer to family organization as it has existed since the early 20th century.

?) In many societies the custom is for young people in the early stages of adolescence to spend time in same-sex groups.

?) In most societies adolescence is marked by social as well as biologic changes.

?) Such social changes often include a new, more formal attitude toward parents and, more particularly, toward members of the opposite sex.

?) In some societies young people go out with mixed-sex groups before they begin dating.

?) Eventually the same-sex groups come into contact with similar groups of the opposite sex at social occasions.

?) But in other countries the practice of dating emerges from the same-sex group phase, as individual young people meet and pair off.

?) If the couple gets along welltogether, the phase sometimes defined as courtship may begin.

?) Often dating is followed by a stage of “steady dating,” in which a couple agree to date only each other.

?) Their exclusive dating relationship may become recognized by their peer group and others, including their respective parents.

?) A young man might visit his intended bride in her parental home and bring gifts, discuss common interests, and perhaps go for walks.

?) In its strictest sense courtship usually refers to an activity, such as dating, with intent to marry.

?) Prior to the 20th century, and still today in some societies, courtship was practiced without dating in the modern sense.

?) And it is frequently difficult in the modern era to make meaningful distinctions between “going out,” dating, and courting.

?) The distinctions are further blurred by modern couples' living together, either before marriage or with no intention of ever marrying.

?) To nontraditional people these customs, if continued to courtship, may seem ridiculously old-fashioned.

?) More typically, though, the family begins with marriage, which grows out of courtship and is preceded by what sociologists call mate selection.

?) Mate selection may be defined simply as the process, often unconscious, of choosing a mate.

?) Usually the mate is the person's intended spouse, and the traditional definition of the term has this implication.

?) For example, people usually marry within their social class and often to those of the same ethnic group or religion.

?) This practice of like marrying like is known as homogamy.

?) Individuals often claim that their match is made on the basis of love, but statistical studies show that other factors are involved.

?) For instance, before she will consent to marry him, a woman may want her intended husband to show that he is capable of supporting her.

?) This practice of like marrying like is known as homogamy.

?) Mate selection is also frequently related to economic factors.

?) And many sociologists regard the raising of children as the primary function of the family.

?) They are also integral to the definition of family life.

?) For most people, children are the key to a happy family life.

?) It requires a readjustment of roles as people become not only husband and wife to each other but also parents to the newborn child.

?) The birth of subsequent children can have equally considerable restructuring effects on the family, including a change in roles for the older children.

?) Childbirth, of course, is a biologic fact, but it is equally a social phenomenon.

?) In many societies, grandparents are indulgent toward their grandchildren, while the parents themselves may be required by convention, and some would say by necessity, to be stricter.

?) Relations between the new parents and their own parents are often heightened as the latter take on their new roles as grandparents.

?) Childbirth, of course, is a biologic fact, but it is equally a social phenomenon.

?) To achieve this, they must acquire education within the family and, later, within the institutions of the society as a whole.

?) The specific social adjustments people must make after the birth of a child differ according to individual circumstances and cultural attitude.

?) No matter what pattern is followed, however, ideally the children are brought up to become productive members of their society.

?) Modern parents retain the vestiges of their traditional roles, but in many parts of the world they send children to nursery school, kindergarten, and then to school, thus delegating to teachers some of their traditional responsibilities for the socialization of their children.

?) In Western societies there is a tendency toward social equality.

?) In all societies, past and present, parents have played a major part in caring for children.

?) Wealthy parents rely less than in the past on nannies to raise their children, and lower- and middle-classparents have greater access to preschool facilities than formerly.

?) As with marital roles, there seems to be a trend toward the reduction of differences in parental roles among social classes.

?) The trends may indeed be related.

?) In modern Islāmic societies and in modern India, as in some other parts of the world, parents have the duty to ensure that their children find suitable wives or husbands, and even the children recognize this.

?) Paradoxically, however, from a child's point of view, Western parents are often regarded as inhibiting independence, particularly during adolescence.

?) In most modern societies, parentsshow an interest in and concern for the sexual activities of their children, something they do not do in most “primitive” societies.

?) Other forms of family organization, such as compound and joint families, are in a sense built upon the nuclear family or contain units comparable to it in their structure.

?) It is generally defined as a married couple and their children (including adopted and fostered children, as well as the couple's natural children).

?) The nuclear, or conjugal, family is the basic unit of family organization in virtually every society.

?) Members of the nuclear family share the same dwelling place, usually a single house or apartment.

?) In many modern societies the nuclear family isidentical to the typical household unit.

?) In agricultural societies the nuclear family is often the primary unit of production, sharing tasks and taking collective responsibility for the income that sustains them.

?) A common variant of the nuclear family is the one-parent family.

?) This form consists of one parent and his or her children.

?) One-parent families may be formed through widowhood, divorce, or separation.

?) In many traditional cultures an unmarried mother is encouraged or even forced to marry, or else she is required to give up her child for adoption by another family.

?) It is becoming increasingly common, however, for a mother to retain her children and raise them, often with the help of her own parents or of government social agencies.

?) In many countries this type of arrangement is more socially acceptable than formerly.

?) The compound family is common in many traditional African societies, as well as elsewhere in the world.

?) And is found especially where polygamy is permitted.

?) The compound family consists of a central figure (normally the household head), his or her spouses, sometimes concubines, and their children.

?) Children may address each woman as “mother,” but they know which is their true mother and to which subfamily they belong.

?) The wives may occupy separate dwellings within the same compound or homestead, and they often cooperate in activities such as gardening or in raising children.

?) In West Africa, for example, a man may have several wives, with each wife as the head of a subfamily unit composed of herself and her children.

?) In this type, a group of brothers and their wives and children all live together in the same household.

?) A much more common form of family organization, one that is typical in parts of India, is the joint family.

?) In India the joint family may have property held in common by male members of the small, coresident patrilineal kin group, though joint families in other parts of the world (traditionallyin China and in parts of Africa) do not necessarily have such collective rights.

?) Such arrangements occurred in feudal Japan, in feudal and postfeudal Europe, and among some groups of immigrant farmers in the United States.

?) If one person is designated as the family leader and another (normally his eldest son) as his successor, this is often described as a stem family.

?) Joint and stem families do not have to be based on a patrilineal kin group.

?) In a narrower sense, sociologists usually think of the extended family as being larger and maintaining less control over its members than does the joint family.

?) There is no precise distinction between the joint family and the extended family, and the latter term can be used to encompass both.

?) In most extended families, the marital bonds between spouses are stronger than the kinship bonds between, for example, the brothers who are the focal people in Indian joint families.

?) As a household unit, the extended family is most common where ties between kinsmen are important for economic reasons.

?) It was commonin Europe during and just after the Industrial Revolution and, more recently, among European immigrant communities outside Europe.

?) It is still common in many parts of the Third World, in both agricultural and industrial contexts, and in Asian communities in the United States, Canada, and Great Britain.

?) As extended families disperse and government agencies take over economic responsibilities formerly held by them, extended families become kin networks.

?) Whereas the extended family is usually associated at least with residential proximity, if not coresidence, kin networks for many people stretch around the world.

?) This has happened in most modern societies.

?) This happens less in Europe, but it remains important in many parts of North and South America, the West Indies, Africa, and Asia.

?) A less dramatic but equally important form of kin network is that between urban and rural areas within a particular country.

?) As migrations to urban areas have increased, contacts have been kept up, and urban families may keep in touch with relatives in cities other than their own, as well as with relatives in their places of origin.

?) City is a relatively permanent and highly organized centre of population, of greater size or importance than a town or village.

?) The name city is given to certain urban communities by virtue of some legal or conventional distinction.

?) It also refers to a particular type of community, the urban community, and its culture, often called “urbanism.”

?) In common usage, however, the name is applied to almost every American urban centre, whether legally a city or not, and without much regard to actual size or importance.

?) In legal terms, in the United States, for example, a city is an urban area incorporated by special or general act of a state legislature.

?) Its charter of incorporation prescribes the extent of municipal powers and the frame of local government, subject to constitutional limitation and amendment.

?) Some European countries have adopted general municipal codes which permit centralized administrative control over subordinate areas through a hierarchy of departmental prefects and local mayors.

?) In English-speaking countries, devolution of powers to the cities occurs through legislative acts that delegate limited self-government to local corporations.

?) City government is almost everywhere the creation of higher political authority, state or national.

?) Mere size of population, surface area, or density of settlement are not in themselves sufficient criteria of distinction, while many of their social correlates (division of labour, nonagricultural activity, central-place functions, and creativity) characterize in varying degree all urban communities from the small country town to the giant metropolis.

?) As a type of community, the city may be regarded as a relatively permanent concentration of population, together withits diverse habitations, social arrangements, and supporting activities, occupying a more or less discrete site, and having a cultural importance that differentiates it from other types of human settlement and association.

?) In its elementary functions and rudimentary characteristics, however, a city is not clearly distinguishable from a town or even a large village.

?) The evolution of the Neolithic village into a city took at least 1,500 years–in the Old World from 5000 to 3500 BC.

?) Neolithic man's domestication of plants and animals eventually led to improved methods of cultivation and stock breeding and the proliferation of the crafts, which in turn eventually produceda surplus and freed some of the population to work as artisans, craftsmen, and service workers.

?) The technological developments making it possible for man to live in urban places were, at first, mainly advances in agriculture.

?) As human settlements increased in size, by reason of the technological advances in irrigation and cultivation, the need for improving the circulation of goods and people became ever more acute.

?) Pre-Neolithic man leading a nomadic existence in his never-ending search for food moved largely by foot and carried his essential goods with the help of his wife and children.

?) Neolithic man, upon achieving the domestication of animals, used them for transportation as well as for food and hides.

?) The major technological achievement in the early history of transportation, however, was obviously the invention of the wheel, used first in the Tigris–Euphrates Valley about 3500 BC and constructed first with solid materials and only later with hubs, spokes, and rims.

?) Parallel improvements were made in water transport–with rafts, dugouts, the Egyptian reed float, eventually wooden boats, and of course canals used for both navigation and irrigation.

?) Wheels, to be used efficiently, required roads, and thus came road building, an art most highly developed in ancient times by the Romans.

?) The growth of cities, however, was by no means the inevitable outcome of a succession from primitive life to civilization.

?) Like their urban contemporaries, the nomads were no longer “primitive” men.

?) As S. Piggott pointed out in “Role of the City in Ancient Civilizations”, an alternative and, in some ways, inimical type of community had arisen in the steppe-lands of Asia based upon animal husbandry: the nomadic encampment.

?) During the 2nd millennium the Indus civilization was engulfed by an onslaught of Aryan nomads, while other peoples, using horses and chariots, penetrated the urban heartland from Mesopotamia to Egypt.

?) Citizenship, though still a ceremonial service, was increasingly associated with the bearing of arms.

?) In these circumstances of prolonged upheaval, survival required the perfection of warlike arts and predatory supply systems, which transformed the urban communities into paramilitary states–e.g., the Hittite, Egyptian,and Mycenaean empires.

?) The City Corporation is Britain's oldest local government; it has the statusof a county, with powers that exceed those of London's 32 other boroughs (collectively called Greater London), notably the control of its own police force.

?) The borough lies on the north bank of the River Thames between the Temple Bar memorial pillar (commemorating the old Temple Bar gate) and the base of Tower Hill.

?) City of London is a municipal corporation and borough, London. Sometimes called the “Square Mile,” it is one of the 33 boroughs that make up London, the capital of the United Kingdom.

?) Its area corresponds closely to that of the medieval city from which modern London has grown.

?) “The City,” as it is known, is only a component, relatively small in area, of the larger urban area known as London.

?) The City belongs geographically tothe historic county of Middlesex, but its special status and privileges gave it autonomy from that county for most of its history.

?) Because of migration to other areas of London and to the suburbs, the resident population of the Square Mile decreased markedly after 1851, when 127,869 persons were counted, to 26,923 in 1901 and 5,234 in 1951.

?) About a quarter of a million workers and tens of thousands of other visitors commute daily to the City via motorway, bus, the Underground (subway), or train stations at Blackfriars and at Liverpool, Fenchurch, and Cannon streets.

?) Thereafter the population remained somewhat stable.

?) Both tendencies mark settlement forms in Britain from very early times, and regional contrasts in the degree of dispersion and nucleation are frequent.

?) Social and economic advantages led some people to cluster, whereas others had an equally strong desire for separateness.

?) The diverse forms and patterns of settlement in the United Kingdom reflect not only the physical variety of the landscape but also the successive movements of peoples arriving as settlers, refugees, or conquerors from continental Europe, alongwith the changing economic contexts in which settlement has occurred.

?) The greatest overall change in settlement was, in fact, the massive urbanization that accompanied Britain's early industrial development.

?) The increasing percentage of employees in offices and service industries ensures continued urban growth.

?) By any standard the United Kingdom is among the most urbanized of countries, for towns not only typify the national way of life but are unusually significant elements in the geography of the country.

?) Large metropolitan areas also formed in industrial areas during the 19th and early 20th centuries.

?) Birmingham dominates the extensive built-up area of the West Midlands metropolitan area, but the industrial Black Country–named for its formerly polluted skies and grimy buildings–also has several large and flourishing towns.

?) Although coalfields or textile manufacture underpinned the initial growth of many of these urban areas, coal mining had virtually ceased in all of them by the end of the 20th century, and the economic predominance of heavy industry and textile production had given way to a more diverse blend of manufacturing and service activities.

?) In contrast to rural life in many other parts of the world, the farm family lived on an isolated farmstead some distance from town and often from farm neighbours; its property averaged less than one-quarter square mile.

?) During the classic period of American rural life, around 1900, the typical American lived or worked on a farm or was economically dependent upon farmers.

?) This farmstead varied in form and content with local tradition and economy.

?) The distinctive New England village, of course, is generally recognized and cherished: it consists of a loose clustering of white frame buildings, including a church (usually Congregationalist or Unitarian), town hall, shops, and stately homes with tall shade trees around the central green, or commons–a grassy expanse that may contain a bandstand and monuments or flowers.

?) Derivative village forms were later carried westward to sections of the northern Midwest.

?) There has been much regional variation among smaller villages and hamlets, but such phenomena have received relatively little attention from students of American culture or geography.

?) Closely packed, often contiguous buildings–mostly brick, but sometimes stone, frame, or stucco–abut directly on a sidewalk, which is often paved with brick and usually thickly planted with maple, sycamore, or other shade trees.

?) Less widely known but equally distinctive is the town morphology characteristic of the Midland, or Pennsylvanian, culture area and most fully developed in southeastern and central Pennsylvania and Piedmont Maryland.

?) It differs totally from the New England model in density, building materials, and general appearance.

?) The most characteristic U.S. small town is the one whose patternevolved in the Midwest.

?) Functions are rigidly segregated spatially, with the central business district, consisting of closely packed two or three-story brick buildings, limited exclusively to commercial and administrative activity.

?) Its simple scheme is usually based on the grid plan.

?) old-fashioned

?) rare

?) fashionable

?) unconscious

?) frame

?) adolescence

?) proximity

?) secret

?) hedge

?) adolescence

?) marriage

?) vigilance