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Consumers, business firms, and governments often do not have the funds available

which could earn interest or dividends if put to productive use.

These savings may accumulate in the form of savings deposits, savings and loan

shares, or pension and insurance claims; when loaned out at interest or invested in equity shares, they provide a source of investment funds.

Savers and investors, on the other hand, accumulate funds

to make expenditures, pay their debts, or complete other transactions and must borrow or sell equity to obtain the money they need to conduct their operations.

They include commercial banks, savings banks,

savings and loan associations, and such nonbank institutions as credit unions, insurance companies, pension funds, investment companies, and finance companies.

Finance is the process of channeling these

are called financial intermediaries.

The institutions that channel funds from savers to users

funds in the form of credit, loans, or invested capital to those economic entities that most need them or can put them to the most productive use.

In developed nations, an elaborate structure of financial markets and institutions exists

procedures, standards, and goals: business finance, personal finance, and public finance.

Three broad areas in finance have developed specialized institutions,

to serve the needs of these areas jointly and separately.

Business finance is a form of applied economics that uses

the quantitative data provided by accounting, the tools of statistics, and economic theory in an effort to optimize the goals of a corporation or other business entity.

Business financing makes use of short-term credit in the form

of trade credit, bank loans, and commercial paper.

Long-term funds are obtained by the sale of securities (stocks and bonds) to a variety of financial institutions and individuals

asset requirements and the optimum combination of funds needed to obtain those assets.

The basic financial decisions involved include an estimate of future

through the operations of national and international capital markets.

Individuals typically obtain mortgages from commercial banks

investment of personal savings, and the use of consumer credit.

The basic financial decisions

involved include an estimate of future asset requirements and the optimum combination of funds needed to obtain those assets.

Personal finance deals primarily with family budgets, the

and savings and loan associations to purchase their homes, while financing for the purchase of consumer durable goods can be obtained from banks and finance companies.

The debt owed by national governments is usually referred to as the national debt and

securities, to pay certain sums to the holders at some future time.

Public debt is distinguished from private debt,

is thus distinguished from the public debt of state and local government bodies.

Public debt is obligations of governments, particularly those evidenced by

which consists of the obligations of individuals, business firms, and nongovernmental organizations.

In the past, paper money was frequently regarded in the United States as a portion of the public debt, but in more recent years money has

known as municipals.

In the United Kingdom, debt or loans incurred by local authorities

been regarded as a distinct type of obligation, in part because paper money is usually no longer payable in gold, silver, or other specific items of intrinsic value.

In the United States, bonds issued by the states and local governments are

are referred to as corporation, or county, loans, thus distinguishing them from central government debt, which is frequently referred to simply as funds.

With sovereign governments, the debt holders can take

to meet these obligations.

Similarly, government property normally cannot be seized

only such legal action to enforce payment as the governments themselves prescribe.

Public debt is an obligation of a government; and, although

individuals are called upon in their capacity as taxpayers to provide funds for payment of interest and principal on the debt, their own property cannot be attached to meet the obligations if the government fails to do so.

оборотный капитал

authorised capital

уставной капитал

seed capital

начальный капитал

basic capital

валюта

discount

процент

percent

скидка

currency

оценка

shortage

девальвация

evaluation

нехватка

devaluation

кредитор

creditor

проект

project

облигация

loan

капитал

services

услуги

funds

фонды

capital

предлагать

to offer

обслуживать

to sell

продавать

to serve

высокий

profitable

выгодный

high

низкий

low

частный

small

мелкий

foreign

иностранный

private

капиталовложения

confidence

доверие

management

управление

investments

процент

rate

ставка

procent

валюта

currency