Список вопросов базы знаний

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: In any case, every work of art adds something new to the world – even artistic photographs – while science succeeds only when it perfectly copies what is already there.

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: In any case, through “the philosopher as scientist” we are encouraged to understand the task of the philosopher as basically the same as that of the scientist, but with a different subject matter, and with mental experiments (a.k.a. intuitions) in place of physical ones.

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: In other words, one must have the ability to be an uncaused cause (interestingly giving people a property that was classically reserved for the divine).

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: In other words, if we think about it we can hardly help but give some meaning to it.

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: In other words, you are free if you are the primary cause of your own actions. This fits nicely with a physicalist view of the world, since in it you are identified with your brain, and it is obvious that your brain could be considered a primary cause of your actions.

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: Indeed explanations of why we like things, when spelled out in full detail, all rest on the fact that one thing or another makes us happy. Thus we can hardly explain happiness in terms of liking if we explain liking in terms of happiness.

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: It is common to view the philosopher as a kind of scientist, a view I call “the philosopher as scientist”. Philosopher as mathematician also has some traction, but then again mathematician as scientist is extremely popular itself, and so, by the transitivity of analogies, this is not really an alternative.

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: Just as science is expected to strive towards some final and perfectly correct theory, so philosophy expected to tread on a similar path. Little good comes of thinking in this way, since philosophy bears little resemblance to science, and less to math. A better model – although deficient in its own ways – is see the philosopher as a kind of artist, and thus philosophy as art.

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: Let’s explore this analogy by considering how art is different than science, and then by thinking about which of the two is more like philosophy. Perhaps the most significant difference between the two is that science is an act of discovery, while art is an act of creation.

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: Many say that the category system sheds light on the nature of being by revealing what kinds of being there are. (This is where the word “ontology” comes from, it literally means the study of being.)

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: Ontology is presented as merely a study of concepts, or of language, or of the forms of experience. These answers are equally unsatisfying, this time because they make ontology significantly less interesting, and possibly not philosophy proper at all.

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: Ontology is something of a fad in philosophy; sometimes it is regarded as the core and foundation of metaphysics, and at others it is held up as an example of what not to do. But what is ontology?

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: Ontology, like philosophy in general, is an activity – something that philosophers do. The practice of ontology produces a system of categories, a division of the world into distinct kinds of things. What these categories are supposed to reveal is debatable.

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: Perhaps weak souls may simply give up at this point and conclude that on the basis of this dilemma that meanings of some kind must be intrinsic after all.

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: So it is the second that I care about. And with respect to the second some claim that quantum mechanics somehow refutes it.

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: So let’s first get clear about what we mean by happiness. I think we all know what the term “happiness” means, but I suppose that there is no harm in making sure that we are all on the same page. Happiness then is a pleasurable feeling, which can be described as an emotion or as a state of mind.

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: Subjectively happiness is a kind of “primary good”, meaning that we enjoy happiness for its own sake. If someone asked us why we liked being happy we couldn’t explain it to them, we like happiness without having a reason for liking it.

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: Such a view is a compatibilist view, because it entails that the question of whether we have free will is independent of whether the universe is deterministic.

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: The obvious answer is that if we are unhappy it is because we don’t have the things that they want, and that we could become happy if we were simply able to get our hands on them.

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: The ontologist has no good answers to these questions. He has many bad ones of course – bad answers seem popular in the defense of philosophy. He might say that he has some special insight into the nature of the world that his ontology reflects.

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: The problem, however, stems not from the fact that meanings are really intrinsic, but that to describe something, to understand it, we have to take up an attitude towards it.

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: The questioner obviously lacks this insight, if he is raising such questions, and so this answer doesn’t go far. Since some special insight is about the only way to justify claims about the fundamental nature of reality that are not obvious to everyone the ontologist often retreats at this point.

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: The apparent contradiction arose then because we were trying to explain what a thing is like outside all attitudes towards it, while at the same time taking up such an attitude. What we are left with are things-in-themselves, noumena, beings-in-themselves. This are all labels for the unthinkable that sits outside, and in a sense “behind”, of the domain of meaning.

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: The problem of human happiness is the question “why are people unhappy?” or, if you are more of an optimist – as I try to be – it is the question “how can we become happy?”.

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: The problem of human happiness, like so many difficult philosophical problems, has both an obvious answer and, at the same time, is completely obscure.

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: The second is the denial of a certain kind of free will. The first is philosophically irrelevant because it is a purely scientific matter concerning what the best mathematical model for describing observed events is.

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: To really engage in that debate we need to make free will part of the stakes. So what is free will in the context of this debate?

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: To say that something is meaningless is not to deny it meaning, it is to give it a meaning – albeit a rather empty one. Nihilism is simply one way of constituting the world, not a refusal to constitute the world at all.

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: We can also draw a distinction between happiness and a pleasurable experience. A pleasurable experience is momentary while happiness subsists over an extended period of time.

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: What a work of art creates is some new perspective, some new idea, some new thought crystallized into physical form and inserted into the public sphere. This is how even a photograph can be creative – an act of creation – in the artistic sense; through the photograph some beautiful image is made physical and public that previously existed only privately in the mind of the photographer.

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: Why are desires connected to happiness? Are they the only source of happiness? What these further questions illustrate is that to successfully grapple with this problem we need an account of the nature of happiness.

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: Art, on the other hand, does not necessarily have to reflect anything. Some art is non-representational. Other works picture scenes that have never occurred outside of the artist’s imagination.

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: I of course am committed to them being wrong about that, because I am committed to the claim that philosophy is completely independent of scientific fact, which means that a scientific discovery can neither support nor refute a truly philosophical claim.

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: Many characterize it as “the ability to do otherwise”, but obviously that definition doesn’t say much since it could just as well be used to describe the self-determination view of free will.

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: Ontology as it is customarily conceived is a questionable practice. Focusing in the results rather than the process, as is common, some ask the ontologist “how do you know?”

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: Others of a less metaphysical bent say instead that the categories reflect fundamental divisions in the world. In any case the results are taken to be deep and important in some way.

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: Pleasure is fleeting while happiness has a kind of stability. Which is not to deny that there is connection between the two; perhaps repeated pleasurable experiences give rise to happiness.

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: Science is out to capture the facts about the world, and the closer it comes to reflecting those facts the better we judge it to be.

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: This raises the question of what things are like then before we give them meanings. In a way the question cannot be properly answered. We cannot say that they have significant relationships to other things, because that is to say they have meaning intrinsically.

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: What is meant by this definition is that to be free one must have the ability to make a meaningful choice which is not fully determined by the preceding physical facts.

Будучи организатором построения высказываний, а через них и речи в целом, ... является основой системности языка.

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